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2. Guide to the handbook
Each language is dealt with separately wherever possible. It may be unclear from the literature whether a language name represents a dialect, or a local group of the same language or a different language altogether. The choice of language name is made on the basis of available research and of contemporary usage. Where a number of different spellings have been used in the past, the one chosen here has been that which is used by the community speaking the language or their descendants. Where no preferred option is apparent in that community, or where the spelling bears little resemblance to the language name, it is taken from the most detailed work available for that language. For example, the language listed here as Inggardais, phonemically, Yingkarta (the spelling that is to be found in Dench's or Austin's work on this language). As there is a location in Carnarvon called Inggarda village, that is the spelling that is adopted here. Similarly, Nyungar is the spelling adopted here for the generic name of languages of the South-west, following language conferences of Nyungar speakers and their descendants where that spelling was agreed to.
The remainder of this section discusses the type of information given under each of the headings.
Location:
Traditional location of speakers of the language is taken from Capell (1963) unless otherwise indicated.
1. Names of the language and different spellings that have been usedUnder this heading are alternative spellings and alternative names of languages. There are usually many ways of spelling a language name, and there may be a number of different names for the same language. The name of a language may have been recorded from someone who speaks a different language, and each of the neighbouring languages may have different names for that one language. For example the Germans call their language 'Deutsch', in English it is 'German', in French 'Allemand', and in Italian 'Tedescho', and so on. Similarly, a group may refer to themselves by more than one name, for example: Ngarla people may also call themselves 'Peedongs' (Bidungu); Watjarri speakers call themselves 'Yamajis'.
2. Classification of the language
There have been a number of attempts at classifying the Aboriginal languages of Australia, the main work is by Schmidt (1919), Capell (1956) and O'Grady, Voegelin and Voegelin (1966), the earlier work reflecting the lack of descriptive linguistic information available at that time. Classification means grouping languages together on the basis of some similarities. The broad classifications, given in this section vary slightly from each other, largely as a result of the amount of information that was available to the researchers. They all use the same method for establishing subgroups, that is, they all compare a list of 100 or more words from the languages in question and determine the relationship between the languages on that basis. O'Grady, Voegelin and Voegelin (1966) apply a lexicostatistical analysis to Australian languages (see below for a discussion of lexicostatistics as a method for determining relationships between languages).
For languages of the West Pilbara, Austin (1985a) presents a different subgrouping. Dench (1983b) and Dench (1985d) argue the difficulty of just using a comparison of vocabulary to show relationships between languages.
The classifications used in the entries in this handbook are those used by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Capell (1963), and Oates (1975). See the family tree diagram in section 3.5 for an illustration of the hypothesised relationships between southern Western Australian languages.
3. Dialects of the language
Decisions on what constitutes a dialect are made on the basis of the most detailed work in the area. A dialect is a variety of the language that may still be understood by speakers of other dialects, but which varies significantly in some aspects of the sound system, vocabulary or grammar.
4. Number and distribution of speakers
This section outlines the contemporary location and number of speakers of the language. The information about location of speakers is given as a guide only. The movement of Aboriginal people in Western Australia, into settlements, and often into other language areas, and more recently back to home camps or outstations has led to language mixing and the use of one language for common communication. In addition there are languages that are now spoken in new locations.
Estimates of numbers of speakers can only be approximate, firstly because it is usually not possible to do extensive censuses of speakers, secondly because multilingualism is so common among speakers of Aboriginal languages (resulting in descendants of a particular language group being able to speak more than their own ancestral language), and thirdly because there are degrees of proficiency of speaking a language (as the number of speakers of a language declines so too may their proficiency, leading to 'semispeakers' who know parts of the language, but do not use it as an everyday means of communication).
For these reasons, the entry in this section will say 'Few or none' rather than 'None', unless it is absolutely clear that there are no more speakers of the language.
5. People who have worked intensively to record the language
This category refers to people who have done detailed research into aspects of the language, for example a thesis based on their own fieldwork.
6. Practical spelling system
This section indicates whether anyone has written the language using a practical system. A practical system is one which can be written using a typewriter, usually it is a system that does not use phonetic symbols.
7. Word lists
Sources quoted in this section include word lists and dictionaries listed in section 13.
8. Texts
Sources quoted in this section include texts listed in section 13.
9. Grammar or sketch grammar
Sources quoted in this section include detailed grammars and shorter grammatical sketches of the language that are listed in section 13
10. Language programmes
This section details whether there is or has been a language programme teaching the language in schools or communities, and what type of programme it is.
11. Language learning material
Listed here are works introducing the language, normally for adult learners of the language.
12. Literature in the language 13. Material available
This section lists material designed to develop reading skills in the language. In some communities there have been literacy production centres producing numerous readers and small books. These are often of a limited production run, and may not be generally available outside of the community. Where this is the case the reader is alerted to the fact that more written material exists in the language than is listed here.
Where little work has been done to record a particular language, sources which record even a few words may be included. For better documented languages (such as Walmajarri, for example) the same type of source is not listed here.
In general, films and videos made in these languages have not been included. The AIATSIS is establishing a catalogue of film material and readers are directed to them for more information. 2.1 How to use the handbook 2.2 How to get more information
To find reference to a language in the handbook you can select the section dealing with the geographical region. Within each of these sections the languages are listed alphabetically by a standard spelling. If you can't find the language in that section, then refer to section 6, the listing of alternative language names and spellings which will direct you to the spelling used in the handbook. If a language name is known but nothing further has been recorded, then it will be discussed in the introduction rather than under the individual language headings.
Each entry in the annotated bibliography includes, where possible, information about the availability of the book or article. Any item with 'IAAS' followed by a number is available at the Institute of Applied Aboriginal Studies at Mount Lawley campus of the Edith Cowan University. Any item with 'Bat' followed by a number is available at the Battye Library, which is the Western Australian collection at the State Library in Perth. PALC is the Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre. AIATSIS is the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, an organisation which collects information about Australian Aboriginal people. Other abbreviations can be found in section 1.3. Information about placenames of Western Australia is available through the WA Lands Department's files, which are now stored in a computer database.